1. A social group is a collection of two or more people who interact frequently with one another,
share a sense of belonging, and have a feeling of interdependence.
<s> 2. An aggregate is a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time
but share little else in common.
<s> 3. A category is a number of people who may never have met one another but share a similar characteristic.
<w> For a fun look at the small world effect in social networks try the Kevin Bacon Game on the web at http://www.usacs.rutgers.edu/~cainan/kbacon/
<url>http://www.usacs.rutgers.edu/~cainan/kbacon/
<s> B. Types of Groups
1. Primary and Secondary Group
<s> a. According to Charles H. Cooley, a primary group is a small group whose members engage in
face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time.
<s> b. A secondary group is a larger, more specialized group in which the members engage in more
impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time.
<np>STOP: Distinguish between primary and secondary groups and explain how people's relationships differ in each.
<np>I. SOCIAL GROUPS
2. Ingroups and Outgroups
<fig>45100<s> a. According to William Graham Sumner, an ingroup is a group to which a person belongs and with
which the person feels a sense of identity.
<s> b. An outgroup is a group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel
a sense of competitiveness or hostility.
<s> 3. Reference Groups
a. A reference group is a group that strongly influences a person's behavior and social attitudes,
regardless of whether that individual is an actual member.
<s> b. Reference groups help us explain why our behavior and attitudes sometimes differ from those of our
membership groups; we may accept the values and norms of a group with which we identify
rather than one to which we belong.
<np>II. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS AND DYNAMICS
A. Group Size
1. A small group is a collectively small enough for all members to be acquainted with one
another and to interact simultaneously.
<s> 2. According to Georg Simmel, small groups have distinctive interaction patterns which do
not exist in larger groups.
<s> a. In a dyad -- a group composed of two members -- the active participation of both members
is crucial for the group's survival and members have a more intense bond and a sense of unity
not found in most larger groups.
<s> b. When a third person is added to a dyad, a triad -- a group composed of three members -- is formed,
and the nature of the relationship and interaction patterns change.
<s> 3. As group size increases, members tend to specialize in different tasks, and communication patterns change.
<s> B. Group Leadership
1. Leaders are responsible for directing plans and activities so that the group completes its
task or fulfills its goals.
<s> 2. Leadership functions:
<s> a. Instrumental leadership is goal or task oriented; if the underlying purpose of a group is to
complete a task or reach a particular goal, this type of leadership is most appropriate.
<s> b. Expressive leadership provides emotional support for members; this type of leadership is most
appropriate when harmony, solidarity, and high morale are needed.
<np> B. Group Leadership
3. Leadership styles:
a. Authoritarian leaders make all major group decisions and assign tasks to members.
<s> b. Democratic leaders encourage group discussion and decision-making through consensus building.
<s> c. Laissez-faire leaders are only minimally involved in decision-making and encourage group
members to make their own decisions.
<np>STOP: Distinguish between the two functions of leadership and the three major styles of group leadership.
<np>II. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS AND DYNAMICS
C. Group Conformity
1. Conformity is the process of maintaining or changing behavior to comply with the norms
established by a society, subculture, or other group.
<s> 2. In a series of experiments, Solomon Asch found that the pressure toward group conformity
was so great that participants were willing to contradict their own best judgment if the rest
of the group disagreed with them.
<np> C. Group Conformity
3. Stanley Milgram (a former student of Asch's) conducted a series of controversial experiments
and concluded that people's obedience to authority may be more common than most of us
would like to believe.
<fig>fig 5-3<s> 4. Irving Janis coined the term groupthink to describe the process by which members of a cohesive
group arrive at a decision that many individual members privately believe is unwise.
<np>III. FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
A. A formal organization is a highly structured secondary group formed for the purpose of
achieving specific goals in the most efficient manner (e.g., corporations, schools, and
government agencies).
<s> B. Types of Formal Organizations
1. Amitai Etzioni classified formal organizations into three categories based on the nature of membership.
<s> 2. We voluntarily join normative organizations when we want to pursue some common interest or
to gain personal satisfaction or prestige from being a member. Examples include political parties,
religious organizations, and college social clubs.
<s> 3. People do not voluntarily become members of coercive organizations -- associations people are
forced to join. Examples include total institutions, such as boot camps and prisons.
<s> 4. We voluntarily join utilitarian organizations when they can provide us with a material reward
we seek. Examples include colleges and universities, and the workplace.
<np> C. Bureaucracies
1. Bureaucracy is an organizational model characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division
of labor, explicit rules and procedures, and impersonality in personnel matters.
<fig>fig 5-5<s> 2. According to Max Weber, bureaucracy is the most "rational" and efficient means of attaining
organizational goals because it contributes to coordination and control. Rationality is the
process by which traditional methods of social organization, characterized by informality and
spontaneity, gradually are replaced by efficiently administered formal rules and procedures.
<fig>BU011119<s> 3. An ideal type is an abstract model which describes the recurring characteristics of some
phenomenon; the ideal characteristics of bureaucracy include:
<fig>43109<s> a. Division of Labor -- each member has a specific status with certain assigned tasks to fulfill
<s> b. Hierarchy of Authority -- a chain of command that is based on each lower office being under
the control and supervision of a higher one.
<s> c. Rules and Regulations -- standardized rules and regulations establish authority within an
organization and usually are provided to members in a written format.
<s> d. Employment Based on Technical Qualifications -- hiring of staff members and professional
employees is based on specific qualifications; individual performance is evaluated against specific
standards; and promotions are based on merit as spelled out in personnel policies.
<s> e. Impersonality -- interaction is based on status and standardized criteria rather than personal
feelings or subjective factors.
<np> C. Bureaucracies
4. An organization's informal structure is composed of those aspects of participants' day-to-day
activities and interactions that ignore, bypass, or do not correspond with the official rules and
procedures of the bureaucracy.
<s> a. The informal structure has also been referred to as work culture.
<s> b. There are two schools of thought about informal structure in organizations; one emphasizes
control (or eradication) of informal groups; the other suggests that they should be nurtured.
<np>STOP: Describe the informal structure in bureaucracies and list its positive and negative aspects.
<np>III. FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
D. Shortcomings of Bureaucracy
1. Inefficiency and Rigidity
<fig>23191<s> a. Goal displacement occurs when the rules become an end-in-themselves (rather than a
means-to-an-end), and organizational survival becomes more important than achievement of goals
<s> b. The term bureaucratic personality is used to describe those workers who are more concerned
with following correct procedures than they are with getting the job done correctly.
<s> 2. Resistance to Change
<s> 3. Perpetuation of Race, Class, and Gender Inequalities
<fig>BU004720<s> E. Bureaucracy and Oligarchy
1. Max Weber believed that bureaucracy was a necessary evil because it achieved coordination and
control and thus efficiency in administration; however, he believed such organizations stifled
human initiative and creativity
<fig>43203<s> 2. Bureaucracy generates an enormous degree of unregulated and often unperceived social power in
the hands of a very few leaders.
<s> 3. According Robert Michels, this results in the iron law of oligarchy -- the tendency to become a
bureaucracy ruled by a few people.
<np>STOP: Describe the iron law of oligarchy and explain why bureaucratic hierarchies and oligarchies go hand in hand.
<np>IV. AN ALTERNATIVE FORM OF ORGANIZATION
A. "Humanizing" bureaucracy includes:
<s> 1. less rigid, hierarchical structures and greater sharing of power and responsibility;
<s> 2. encouragement of participants to share their ideas and try new approaches; and
<s> 3. efforts to reduce the number of people in dead-end jobs and to help people meet outside family
responsibilities while still receiving equal treatment inside the organization.
<s> B. The Japanese model of organization has been widely praised for its innovative structure,
which (until recently) has included:
<s> 1. Lifetime Employment -- Workers were guaranteed permanent employment after an initial
probationary period.
<s> 2. Quality Circles -- small workgroups that meet regularly with managers to discuss the
group's performance and working conditions.
<np>V. ORGANIZATIONS IN THE FUTURE
A. There is a lack of consensus among organizational theorists about the "best" model of organization;
however, some have suggested a horizontal model in which both hierarchy and functional or
departmental boundaries largely would be eliminated.
<s> B. In the horizontal structure, a limited number of senior executives would still exist in support roles
(such as finance and human resources); everyone else would work in multidisciplinary teams that
would perform core processes (e.g., product development or sales).
<s> C. It is difficult to determine what the best organizational structure for the future might be; however,
everyone can benefit from humane organizational environments that provide opportunities for all
people regardless of race, gender, or class.
<end>
<nq>20
<ques>A(n) _____ is a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time while a(n) _____ is a number of people who may never have met one another but share a similar characteristic.
<c1>aggregate - category
<c2>category - aggregate
<c3>social group - aggregate
<c4>category - social group
<ans>a<expl>An aggregate is a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time while a category is a number of people who may never have met one another but share a similar characteristic. (p. 130)
<ques>John had thought about trying out for the football team, but because he is not very athletic, he decides to hang out with the "stoners" at his school. He harbors some feelings of hostility for the football team. For John, the football team represents a(n):
<c1>reference group.
<c2>secondary group.
<c3>ingroup.
<c4>outgroup.
<ans>d<expl>John had thought about trying out for the football team, but because he is not very athletic, he decides to hang out with the "stoners" at his school. He harbors some feelings of hostility for the football team. For John, the football team represents an outgroup. (p. 133)
<ques>A _____ is an alliance created in an attempt to reach a shared objective or goal.
<c1>triad
<c2>coalition
<c3>dyad
<c4>reference group
<ans>b<expl>A coalition is an alliance created in an attempt to reach a shared objective or goal. (p. 134)
<ques>_____leadership is goal or task oriented; _____leadership provides emotional support for members.
<c1>authoritarian - democratic
<c2>authoritarian - laissez-faire
<c3>expressive - instrumental
<c4>instrumental - expressive
<ans>d<expl>Instrumental leadership is goal or task oriented; expressive leadership provides emotional support for members. (pp. 135-136)
<ques>A group leader at a business-related seminar is only minimally involved with the decisions made by the group and encourages members to make their own choices. This illustrates a(n) _____ leader. (p. 136)
<c1>expressive
<c2>democratic
<c3>laissez-faire
<c4>authoritarian
<ans>c<expl>A group leader at a business-related seminar is only minimally involved with the decisions made by the group and encourages members to make their own choices. This illustrates a laissez-faire leader. (p. 136)
<ques>In one of Solomon Asch's experiments, a subject was asked to compare the length of lines printed on a series of cards without knowing that all other research "subjects" actually were assistants to the researcher. The results of Asch's experiments revealed that:
<c1>85 percent of the subjects routinely chose the correct response regardless of the assistants' opinions.
<c2>33 percent of the subjects routinely chose to conform to the opinion of the assistants by giving the same (incorrect) answer.
<c3>10 percent of the subjects routinely chose to conform to the opinion of the assistants by giving an incorrect answer.
<c4>the opinion of the assistants had no influence on the subjects' opinions.
<ans>b<expl>In one of Solomon Asch's experiments, a subject was asked to compare the length of lines printed on a series of cards without knowing that all other research "subjects" actually were assistants to the researcher. The results of Asch's experiments revealed that 33 percent of the subjects routinely chose to conform to the opinion of the assistants by giving the same (incorrect) answer. (p. 137)
<ques>In reference to the experiments by Stanley Milgram, the text points out that:
<c1>obedience to authority may be less common than most people would like to believe.
<c2>many of the subjects questioned the ethics of the experiment.
<c3>research such as this raises important questions concerning research ethics.
<c4>most of the subjects were afraid to conform because the use of electrical current was involved.
<ans>c<expl>In reference to the experiments by Stanley Milgram, the text points out that research such as this raises important questions concerning research ethics. (pp. 137-138)
<ques>According to the text, the disaster of the 1986 launch of the space shuttle Challenger is an example of:
<c1>groupthink.
<c2>obedience to authority.
<c3>compliance.
<c4>the iron law of oligarchy.
<ans>a<expl>According to the text, the tragic launch of the space shuttle Challenger is an example of groupthink. (pp. 141-142)
<ques>All of the following are types of formal organizations, except _____ organizations.
<c1>normative
<c2>anomic
<c3>coercive
<c4>utilitarian
<ans>b<expl>All of the following are types of formal organizations, except: anomic organizations. (p. 143)
<ques>Membership in _____ organizations is involuntary.
<c1>normative
<c2>anomic
<c3>coercive
<c4>utilitarian
<ans>c<expl>Membership in coercive organizations is involuntary. (p. 143)
<ques>According to Max Weber, rationality refers to:
<c1>the process by which bureaucracy is gradually replaced by alternative types of organization such as quality circles.
<c2>the process by which traditional methods of social organization are gradually replaced by bureaucracy.
<c3>the level of sanity (or insanity) of people in an organization.
<c4>the logic used by organizational leaders in decision making.
<ans>b<expl>According to Max Weber, rationality refers to the process by which traditional methods of social organization are gradually replaced by bureaucracy. (p. 145)
<ques>All of the following are ideal-type characteristics of bureaucratic organizations, as specified by Max Weber, except:
<c1>coercive leadership.
<c2>impersonality.
<c3>hierarchy of authority.
<c4>division of labor.
<ans>a<expl>All of the following are ideal-type characteristics of bureaucratic organizations, as specified by Max Weber, except: coercive leadership (p. 145)
<ques>A "grapevine" that spreads information outside of official channels in the workplace is cited in the text as an example of:
<c1>informal structures in bureaucracy.
<c2>impersonality.
<c3>hierarchy of authority.
<c4>rules and regulations.
<ans>a<expl>A "grapevine" that spreads information outside of official channels in the workplace is cited in the text as an example of informal structures in bureaucracy. (p. 146)
<ques>The informal structure of bureaucracy which includes the ideology and practices of workers on the job is referred to as:
<c1>Parkinson's Law.
<c2>the iron law of oligarchy.
<c3>the Peter Principle.
<c4>the work culture.
<ans>d<expl>The information structure of a bureaucracy which includes the ideology and practices of workers on the job is referred to as work culture. (p. 146)
<ques>White women and people of color who are employed in positions traditionally held by white men (such as firefighters, police officers, and factory workers):
<c1>often experience categoric exclusion from the informal structure.
<c2>often lack an informal network to "grease the wheels".
<c3>may be harassed and endangered by their co-workers.
<c4>All of the above
<ans>d<expl>White women and people of color who are employedin positions traditionally held by white men (such as firefighters, police officers, and factory workers) often experience categoric exclusion from the informal structure, often lack an informal network to "grease the wheels" and may be harassed and endangered by their co-workers. All of the above is therefore the best answer. (p. 147)
<ques>All of the following are listed in the text as being shortcomings of bureaucracy, except:
<c1>impersonality.
<c2>inefficiency and rigidity.
<c3>resistance to change.
<c4>perpetuation of race, class, and gender inequalities.
<ans>a<expl>All of the following are listed in the text as being shortcomings of bureaucracy, except: impersonality. (p. 147)
<ques>William Whyte coined the term ______ to identify an individual whose life is controlled by the corporation.
<c1>organizational worker
<c2>organization man
<c3>corporate candidate
<c4>bureaucratic buster
<ans>b<expl>The organization man is a term that William Whyte uses to identify an individual whose life is controlled by the corporation. (p. 149)
<ques>According to sociologist Joe R. Feagin's recent research on racial and ethnic inequalities in organizations, many middle-class African Americans today:
<c1>are included in informal communications networks at work.
<c2>have mentors who take an interest in furthering their careers.
<c3>have found that entry into dominant white bureaucratic organizations has brought about integration for them.
<c4>have experienced an internal conflict between the ideal of equal opportunity and the prevailing norms of many organizations.
<ans>d<expl>According to sociologist Joe R. Feagin's research, many middle-class African Americans who enter white bureaucratic organizations today have experienced an internal conflict between the ideal of equal opportunity and the prevailing norms of many organizations. (p. 149)
<ques>According to Robert Michels, all organizations encounter:
<c1>the Peter Principle.
<c2>the iron law of oligarchy.
<c3>Murphy's Law.
<c4>groupthink.
<ans>b<expl>According to Robert Michels, all organizations encounter the iron law of oligarchy. (p. 132)
<ques>The post-World War II Japanese organizational structure has all of the following characteristics except:
<c1>employers have an obligation not to "downsize" by laying off workers.
<c2>managers take pay cuts when their companies are financially strapped.
<c3>employers have to compete with each other to keep their workers.
<c4>workers have a high level of productivity.
<ans>c<expl>According to the organizational structure in Japan, employers do not have to compete with one another to keep workers. (p. 153)
<tf>15
<ques>Sexual harassment always occurs in a one-on-one setting.
<ans>F<expl>Although sexual harassment may occur in a one-on-one setting, harassment also is found in small and large groups. (p. 129)
<ques>Although formal organizations are secondary groups, they also contain many primary groups within them.
<ans>T<expl>None(p. 132)
<ques>According to functionalists, people form groups to meet instrumental and expressive needs.
<ans>T<expl>None(p. 134)
<ques>If one member withdraws from a dyad, the group ceases to exist.
<ans>T<expl>None(p. 134)
<ques>Laissez-faire leaders encourage group discussion and decision making through consensus building.
<ans>F<expl>Democratic leaders encourage group discussion and decision making through consensus building; laissez-faire leaders are only minimally involved in decision making and encourage group members to make their own decisions. (p. 136)
<ques>Recent research on sexual harassment by psychologist John Pryor suggests that there is a relationship between group conformity and harassment.
<ans>T<expl>None(pp. 139-40)
<ques>Political parties, parent-teacher associations, and college sororities and fraternities are examples of utilitarian organizations.
<ans>F<expl>Political parties, parent-teacher associations, and college sororities and fraternities are examples of normative organizations. (p. 143)
<ques>When many people think of bureaucracy, they think of a high level of productivity and efficiency.
<ans>F<expl>When many people think of bureaucracy, they think of "buck-passing" and "red tape." (p. 144)
<ques>An ideal type is an abstract model that describes the recurring characteristics of some phenomenon.
<ans>T<expl>None(p. 145)
<ques>Impersonality in a bureaucracy requires a detached approach toward clients.
<ans>T<expl>None(pp. 145-146)
<ques>The formal structure of an organization has been referred to as "bureaucracy's other face."
<ans>F<expl>The informal structure of an organization has been referred to as "bureaucracy's other face." (p. 146)
<ques>Informal networks serve as a means of communication and cohesion among individuals.
<ans>T<expl>None(p. 146)
<ques>Traditional management theories are based on the assumption that people basically are lazy and motivated by greed.
<ans>T<expl>None(p. 146)
<ques>Reports of overt harassment of women have come from virtually all occupational areas.
<ans>T<expl>None(p. 150)
<ques>Quality circles have not been effective in creating worker satisfaction.
<ans>F<expl>Quality circles have been praised for creating worker satisfaction. (p. 153)
